Definitions of Attitude Essay Example for Free

Definitions of Attitude EssayAn carriage weed be pay backd as a positive or proscribe evaluation of people, preys, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environ workforcet, provided in that none is debate about precise explanations. Eagly and Chaiken, for exercise, define an locating a psychological huntency that is expressed by evaluating a fall inicular entity with close to degree of favor or disfavor.2 Though it is some clock park to define an posture as locomote toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete aw arnesss or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from emplacement as a measure of favorability. 3 This definition of stead allows for mavins evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, plainly also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they force at different times express twain positive and negative attitude toward the a nalogous object.This has led to some discussion of whether undivided can urinate multiple attitudes toward the same object.4 Whether attitudes be explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of immense research. look on implicit attitudes, which ar generally unac fellowshipd or outside of awargonness, uses sophisticated methods involving peoples response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes arrive at the appearance _or_ semblance to affect peoples way, though in different ways. They tend non to be firmly associated with to each one an other(a)(prenominal)wise, although in some cases they atomic number 18. The recountingship among them is poorly understood.Jungs definitionAttitude is integrity of Jungs 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. Jungs definition of attitude is a readiness of the psyc he to act or react in a certain way (Jung, 1921 1971par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines some(prenominal) attitudes. The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines ar the following. Consciousness and the unconscious. The heraldic bearing of cardinal attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This nitty-gritty that consciousness has a constellation of table of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 687). Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jungs theory of instances that he labeled them the attitude-types. Rational and irrational attitudes. I conceive reason as an attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 785). The rational attitude subdivides into the gaugeing and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude. The irrational attitude subdivide s into the espial and apprehension psychological functions, each with its attitude. There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 691). undivided and social attitudes. Many of the latter atomic number 18 isms. In appendix, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. When I take an abstract attitude (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 679). Abstr comeance is contrasted with concretism. CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction (Jung, 1921 1971 par. 696). For example I hate his attitude for being Sarcastic. preceding(a)ed fromThe classic, three-way pull in offered by William J. McGuire9 is that an attitude contains cognitive, emotional, and behavioural components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and mienal objectives associated with a particular attitude.10 A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requi res cognitive, affective, and behavioural associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this whitethorn be implausible.Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and demeanoral components as derivative of affect or affect and deportment as derivative of underlying beliefs.11 Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is exactable evidence that attitudes reflect more than than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Attitudes also strive up other characteristics, much(prenominal) as wideness, certainty, or approachability (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.12 There is also considerable sideline in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, much(prenominal) as fructify or ideology.13Attitude functionAnother classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers film move to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.14 Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve subservient, adjustive or utilitarian, ego-defensive, value-expressive, or knowledge functions.15The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via judgment), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the ego-defensive function might be used to decide the racially negative attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open- straitsed and tolerant. By appealing to that individuals image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive core that threatens self-image is much more liable(predicate) to be rejected.16Attitude formation fit in to Doob (1947), learning can account for nigh of the attitudes we hold. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike somebodyality, attitudes are pass judgment to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary proteans may affect attitudes but desires that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, twin studies are used.17The just about famous example of such(prenominal) a theory is Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and conduct) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a demeanour) .18 Other theories involve balance theory, origincally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.19Attitude changeMain article Attitude changeAttitudes can be changed with persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a contentedness include1. Target Characteristics These are characteristics that refer to the individual who receives and functiones a meat. One such trait is intelligence service it seems that more intelligent people are little easily persuaded by one-sided mental objects. Another shifting that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the congressship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of ensure self-este em being more easily persuaded than both(prenominal) those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes Woods, 1992). The mind contrive and mood of the target also plays a role in this flow.2. Source Characteristics The major germ characteristics are expertise, devoteworthiness and inter individualized attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceive inwardness has been found to be a key variable here if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a touristed newspaper. Some psychologists come debated whether this is a long-lasting government issue and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called sleeper effect). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hea ring it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.3. Message Characteristics The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to knead the message, simply the number of tunes presented in a persuasive message leave alone influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments ordain get down greater attitude change.204. cognitive Routes A message can appeal to an individuals cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central passage to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to quantify the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral bridle-path to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, ph ysician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness.Emotion and attitude changeEmotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion draws hand-in-hand with the cognitive sue, or the way we think, about an fruit or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brains associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change. Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prodigy of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that foreshadowing emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales.In legal injury of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, strain changes, and other luggage compartment rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, incr comfortd heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 19 94). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era .Components of emotion appealsAny discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted,and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may authorize to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimum emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough demand, an attitude will not change if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change. Emotions perceive as negative or containing threat are often studied more than sensed positive emotions like humor.Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the bear on of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement. Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of ones own human agency in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a persons ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation.For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming. Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal co mmunication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all. Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to change.Attitude-behavior relationshipThis section requires expansion. (September 2012)The effects of attitudes on behaviors represents a significant research enterp raise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches have dominated this research the theory of reasoned action21 and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of aforethought(ip) behavior,22 both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behavior as a deliberative process, with an individual actively choosing to engage in an attitude-related behavior.An selection model, called MODE for Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behavior to occur. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behavior linkages like those modeled by the theory of mean behavior only occur when individuals have motivation to reflect upon their own attitudes.Pasted fromTheory of reasoned actionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigation, searchThe theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioral aim, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of behavioral mark from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the field of honor of attitude and behavior. The theory was born largely out of frustration with conventional attitudebehavior research, much of which found weak correlations between attitude measures and realizeance of volitional behaviors (Hale, homeowner Greene, 2003, p. 259).Pasted fromDefinition and exampleDerived from the social psychology setting, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1975 1980). The components of TRA are three general constructs behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and indwelling average (SN). TRA suggests that a persons behavioral intention depends on the persons attitude about the behavior and congenital norms (BI = A + SN ). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is likely that the person will do it. Behavioral intention measures a persons telling strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude consists of beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior multiplied by his or her evaluation of these consequences. (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975) prejudiced norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from relevant individuals or groups along with intentions to comply with these expectations.In other words, the persons perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behavior in question (Fishbein Ajzen, 1975). To put the definition into simple terms a persons volitional (voluntary) behavior is predicted by his/her attitude toward that behavior and how he/she thinks other people would view them if they performed the behavior. A persons attitude, combined with subjective norms, forms his/her behavioral intention.Fishbein and Ajzen say, though, that attitudes and norms are not weighted as in predicting behavior. Indeed, depending on the individual and the situation, these factors might be very different effects on behavioral intention thus a weight is associated with each of these factors in the predictive formula of the theory. For example, you might be the kind of person who cares little for what others think. If this is the case, the subjective norms would carry little weight in predicting your behavior (milling machine, 2005, p. 127). Miller (2005) defines each of the three components of the theory as follows and uses the example of embarking on a new exercise program to illustrate the theory Attitudes the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these beliefs You might have the beliefs that exercise is good for your health, that exercise makes you look good, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. to each one of these beliefs can be weig hted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues of time and comfort). Subjective norms looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioral intentions the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each of their opinions, will influence ones behavioral intention You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join them. However, your spouse might prefer a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of their opinions, will influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which will lead to your behavior to exercise or not exercise. Behavioral intention a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior. Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to your actual behavior.Pasted fromIn psychology, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioural ascendancy.1 It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral supremacy, together shape an individuals behavioral intentions and behaviors.Pasted fromExtension from the theory of reasoned actionThe theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article From intentions to actions A theory of planned b ehavior. The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,2 and attribution theory.3 According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so.A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies.4 A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not alwa ys lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individuals come across over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, perceived behavioral train. By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior.Extension of self-efficacyIn addition to attitudes and subjective norms (which make the theory of reasoned action), the theory of planned behavior adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which originates from self-efficacy theory (SET). Self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977, which came from social cognitive theory. According to Bandura, expectations such as motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine effect and behavioral reactions. Bandura (1986)full citation needed separated expectations into two distinct types self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully complete the behavior required to produce the outcomes.The outcome expectancy refers to a persons estimation that a presumptuousness behavior will lead to certain outcomes. He states that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it determines the initiation of manage behavior. Previous investigations have shown that peoples behavior is strongly influenced by their confidence in their ability to perform that behavior (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, Howells, 1980).full citation needed As the self-efficacy theory contributes to explaining various relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, the SET has been widely applied to health-related fields such as physical activity and mental health in preadolescents,5 and exercise.6 Concepts of key variablesBehavioral beliefs and attitude toward behavior Behavioral bel ief an individuals belief about consequences of particular behavior. The concept is based on the subjective fortune that the behavior will produce a given outcome. Attitude toward behavior an individuals positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior. The concept is the degree to which performance of the behavior is positively or negatively valued. It is dogged by the total set of accessible behavioral beliefs linking the behavior to various outcomes and other attributes.Normative beliefs and subjective norms Normative belief an individuals perception about the particular behavior, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers).7 Subjective norm an individuals perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others beliefs that he or she should or should not perform such behavior. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control Perceived behavioral control an individuals perceived ease or d ifficulty of performing the particular behavior (Ajzen, 1988).full citation needed It is assumed that perceived behavioral control is determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs. Control beliefs an individuals beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2001).full citation needed The concept of perceived behavioral control is conceptually related to self-efficacy.Behavioral intention and behavior Behavioral intention an indication of an individuals readiness to perform a given behavior. It is assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b).full citation needed It is based on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest. Behavior an individuals observable response in a given situation with respect to a given target. Ajzen said a behavior is a function of com patible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is expected to lead the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong.Pasted fromCognitive dissonance is a term used in modern psychology to describe the feeling of botheration when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel disequilibrium frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.1 The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 word of honor When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse.23 Festinger subsequently published a book called A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, published in 1957, in which he outlines the theory.Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influ ential and greatly studied theories in social psychology. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the unsolved elements.1 It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they find themselves doing things that dont fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold. 4 A key assumption is that people want their expectations to meet reality, creating a sense of equilibrium. 5Likewise, another assumption is that a person will avoid situations or information sources that give rise to feelings of uneasiness, or dissonance.1 Cognitive dissonance theory explains human behavior by positing that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a proc ess he termed dissonance reduction, which can be achieved in one of three ways lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors.6 This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even destructive behavior.Pasted fromThe elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion1 is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early eighties (see also attitude change). The model proposes an elaboration continuum, which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is similar to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed just about the same time by Shelly Chaiken.Pasted fromCentral highroadCentral route processes require the audience to use a great de al more thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration. Central route processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. downstairs these conditions, a persons unique cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome. If a person evaluates a message centrally as reliable, well-constructed, and convincing, it will often be received as favorable even if it is contrasting to the receivers original stance on the message.So, if favorable thoughts are a result of the elaboration process, the message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruent with the messages position will emerge), and if unfavorable thoughts are generated while considering the merits of presented arguments, the message will most likely be rejected.1 In order for the message to be centrally processed, a person must have the ability and motivatio n to do so. In order for the receiver to have motivation to centrally process a message it must have relevance to him or her.Peripheral routePeripheral route processes, on the other hand, does not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, quality of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.1 It is also a great deal used when the argument presented is weak and/or lacking evidence. The peripheral route is a mental crosscut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue 2 The peripheral route is a process in which outside influences affect the decision making process.This is also the process used when the audience is unable to process the message . This could be from having a message that is too complex, or an audience that is immature. The most common influences would be factors such as reward. pickingss could be objects like food, sex or money. These inducements create a quick change in mind and action. Celebrity status along with likability and expertise are other factors in the peripheral process that have become more popular. Humor within messages is a dominant influence in this process as well. Appearance also has the ability to gain the attention of individuals which can create an interest in the topic, but will not create a strong change in individuals. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change, this change can be weak and even temporary as opposed to the strong and lasting change in the central route.Choice of routeThe two factors that most influence which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation are motivation (strong go for to process the message e.g., Petty Cacioppo, 1979) and abili ty (actually being capable of critical evaluation e.g., Petty, Wells, Brock, 1976). Which route is taken is determined by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. Motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a persons need for cognition (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to carefully scrutinize the arguments.The ability to understand the message that is being communicated. Distractions such as noise can affect the ability for one to process a message. An example of noise would be a persuader trying to share his message in a room full of crying babies, this would make it extremely difficult for listeners to concentrate on the message being given. Noise that you cant physically control would be if a persuaders listeners could concentrate on the message because they had something else on their mind which was more important than the persuaders message like a death in the family, or problems theyre having in their relationship. Another example of this is in children.A child will change their behavior because his or her parent told them to do so rather than taking the information given and processing it. As that child grows up, however, he or she will have a higher cognitive complexity, and therefore be able to process the information of the situation centrally in order to draw a conclusion of their own. (OKeefe)The subjects general knowledge level, as well as their education and experience with the topic at hand greatly affect their ability to be persuaded. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a mixture of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. There are benefits and consequences for both processes. An individual who disagrees with the message being p resented will likely have a boomerang effect if he or she centrally processes the message and bounce farther away from the speakers goal. If that same situation takes place, but the message is peripherally processed, a weak change will not have as large of a negative effect on that individual. (OKeefe)Type of shade Objective Versus unilateral ThinkingAttitude, motivation, and ability strongly increase the likelihood that a message will be infixed in the minds of listeners. Although, as the social judgement theory suggests, they may not process the information in a fair, objective way. Attitudes are general evaluations that people hold that correspond with how they perceive themselves in relation to the world they live in. One way to influence attitude is to give peripheral cues. Peripheral cues can be things that lead to good or punishing or they can invoke provide guide rules or inferences. These are often effective because they cause the audience to draw the conclusion themsel ves, therefore, making them believe it is their own idea, so they buy in to it. (Griffin) Many of the evaluations are based on Cognitive intelligence, behavior, and guidance. habituated a basic understanding of an individuals attitudes one can interpret which type of elaboration would better grounds the situation. There are two types of elaboration a listener can possess (Biased elaboration, Objective elaboration) Elaboration can lead to both positive and negative results depending on the audience who is receiving the message. Individuals who have a Pre conception of a certain topic are going to be much harder to persuade oppose to an individual who has an open mind about a topic where only the facts hold truth. Biased Elaboration top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data.This is used on people who likely already have their minds made up about a situation before the message is ever conveyed to them (Cacioppo) Ex. individual who has had a negat ive personal experience with motorcycles will likely have made up their minds and be biased in the way they process the message.2 Objective Elaboration Bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias seeking truth wherever it might lead. These listeners let the facts speak for themselves and approach the message with an unbias mind. Which leads to a true unbiased result or opinion. (Cacioppo) Ex. A person who is listening to a motorcycle salesman and already has a mindset about them. This person would let the facts influence their attitude.2Testing the Elaboration Likelihood pretenseTo design a way to test the Elaboration Likelihood Model, it is crucial to determine whether an argument is universally seen as strong or weak. If an argument is inconsistent in opinions of strength, the results of persuasion will be inconsistent. A strong argument is defined by Petty and Cacioppo as one containing arguments such that when subjects are instructed to think about the messa ge, the thoughts they generate are fundamentally favorable (Griffin).In general, a weak argument that is universally viewed as weak will entice unfavorable results if the subject is instructed to and is in an appropriate environment to consider it logically (or when testing the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model). In turn, a strong argument under similar circumstances will return favorable results. The test arguments must also be rated for ease of understanding, complexity, and familiarity. To scientifically study either route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the arguments themselves must be intentional to have consistent results.3Conclusions of the Elaboration Likelihood ModelIn addition to these factors, the ELM also makes several unique proposals.1 It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and is less suscept ible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration, the peripheral route, are more likely to cause a short term attitude change. Variables in ELM routes can serve multiple roles in a persuasive setting depending on other contextual factors (examples below). Under high elaboration, a given variable (e.g., source expertise) can either serve as an argument (If Einstein agrees with the theory of relativity, then this is a strong reason for me to as well) or as a biasing factor (if an expert agrees with this position it is probably good, so let me see what else agrees with this conclusion at the expense of information that may disagree with it).4 Under conditions of low elaboration, a given variable can act as a peripheral cue.This could happen, e.g., through the use of an experts are always right heuristic. Note that, while this is similar to the Einstein example presented above, this is a simple shortcut, which, unlike the Einstein example, does no t require careful thought. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a given variable can serve to direct the extent of information processing If an expert agrees with this position, I should sincerely listen to what (s)he has to say. Interestingly, when a variable affects elaboration, this can increase or decrease persuasion, depending on the strength of the arguments presented. If the arguments are strong, enhancing elaboration will enhance persuasion.If the arguments are weak, however, more thought will undermine persuasion. More modern adaptations of the ELM (e.g.)5 have added an additional role that variables can serve. They can affect the extent to which a person has confidence in, and thus trusts, their own thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). Keeping with our source expertise example, a person may feel that if an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my at titude. Note that this role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs under conditions that promote high elaboration.Pasted fromAttitudesAttitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. perspicuous attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components cognitive, emotional, and behavioral.Example Jane believes that smoking is unhealthy, feels disgusted when people smoke around her, and avoids being in situations where people smoke. Dimensions of AttitudesResearchers study three dimensions of attitude strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. Attitude strength Strong attitudes are those that are firmly held and that highly influence behavior. Attitudes that are important to a person tend to be strong. Attitudes that people have a vested interest in al so tend to be strong. Furthermore, people tend to have stronger attitudes about things, events, ideas, or people they have considerable knowledge and information about. Attitude accessibility The accessibility of an attitude refers to the ease with which it comes to mind. In general, highly accessible attitudes tend to be stronger. Attitude ambivalence Ambivalence of an attitude refers to the ratio of positive and negative evaluations that make up that attitude. The ambivalence of an attitude increases as the positive and negative evaluations get more and more equal.The determine of Attitudes on BehaviorBehavior does not always reflect attitudes. However, attitudes do determine behavior in some situations If there are a few(prenominal) outside influences, attitude guides behavior.Example Wyatt has an attitude that eating junk food is unhealthy. When he is at home, he does not eat chips or candy. However, when he is at parties, he indulges in these foods. Behavior is guided by atti tudes specific to that behavior.Example Megan might have a general attitude of respect toward seniors, but that would not prevent her from being disrespectful to an elderly woman who cuts her off at a stop sign. However, if Megan has an sluttish attitude about being cut off at stop signs, she is not likely to substantiate at someone who cuts her off. Behavior is guided by attitudes that come to mind easily.Example Ron has an attitude of hunch and annoyance toward telemarketers, so he immediately hangs up the phone whenever he realizes he has been contacted by one.The Influence of Behavior on AttitudesBehavior also affects attitudes. Evidence for this comes from the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and the effect of role playing.The Foot-in-the-Door PhenomenonPeople tend to be more likely to agree to a difficult request if they have first agreed to an blowsy one. This is called the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.Example Jill is more likely to let an acquaintance borrow her laptop for a d ay if he first persuades her to let him borrow her textbook for a day.Social Norms and Social regionsSocial norms are a societys rules about appropriate behavior. Norms exist for practically every kind of situation. Some norms are explicit and are made into laws, such as the norm While driving, you may not run over a pedestrian. Other norms are implicit and are followed unconsciously, such as You may not wear a bikini to class. Social roles are patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context. For example, gender roles tell people how a particular society expects men and women to behave. A person who violates the requirements of a role tends to feel uneasy or to be censured by others. Role requirements can change over time in a society.The Effect of Role Playing and the prison house StudyPeople tend to internalize roles they play, changing their attitudes to fit the roles. In the 1970s, the psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a famous stu dy called the prison study, which showed how roles influence people. Zimbardo delegate one group of college student volunteers to play the role of prison guards in a simulated prison environment. He provided these students with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and told them to enforce a set of rules in the prison.He assigned another group of students to play the role of prisoners. Zimbardo found that as time went on, some of the guard students became progressively harsh and domineering. The prisoner students also internalized their role. Some broke down, while others rebelled or became passively resigned to the situation. The internalization of roles by the two groups of students was so extreme that Zimbardo had to terminate the study after only six days.